LEXICAL STYLISTIC DEVICES LECTURE 6 1 STYLISTIC DEVICES

LEXICAL STYLISTIC DEVICES LECTURE 6(1)

STYLISTIC DEVICES BASED ON THE INTERACTION OF LOGICAL AND CONTEXTUAL LOGICAL MEANINGS. METAPHOR (TRANSFERENCE) IS THE INTERACTION BETWEEN LOGICAL AND CONTEXTUAL LOGICAL MEANINGS BASED ON SOME EXISTING OR SUPPOSED LIKENESS BETWEEN OBJECTS. IT IS A TRANSFERENCE BASED ON THE ASSOCIATION OF SIMILIRATY OR AFFINITY. IN LINGUISTIC TERMS METAPHOR MAY BE DEFINED AS A DEVIATION FROM CONVENTIONAL COLLOCATION. E. G. THE LAST COLOURS OF SUNSET WERE DRIPPING OVER THE EDGE OF THE FLAT WORLD. (G. GREENE). METAPHOR MAY BE EXPRESSED BY ANY PART OF SPEECH. METAPHORS MAY BE OF DIFFERENT TYPES. A DISTINCTION IS USUALLY MADE BETWEEN POETIC, STYLISTIC, INDIVIDUAL METAPHORS AND LEXICAL , DEAD , TRITE METAPHORS.

POETIC/STYLISTIC METAPHOR IS BASED UPON A DISCOVERY OF SOME NEW, FRESH AND STRIKING ANALOGY BETWEEN TWO THINGS. POETIC/STYLISTIC METAPHOR IS AN INDIVIDUAL CREATION. E. G. “…THROUGH THE OPEN WINDOW THE DUST DANCED AND WAS GOLDEN”. (O. WILDE) E. G. ” THE LEAVES FELL SORROWFULLY. ” IN EVERY LANGUAGE THERE EXISTS A NUMBER OF METAPHORS WHICH HAVE LOST THEIR EXPRESSIVENESS BECAUSE OF LONG USE. IN SUCH METAPHORS , CALLED TRITE, DEAD OR LEXICAL ONES, . THE ANALOGY IS COMPLETELY FORGOTTEN, HENCE IT PRODUCES NO STYLISTIC EFFECT. E. G. “ A HEAD OF A CABBAGE”, “THE PATH WINDS”, “ THE MOUTH OF THE RIVER”.

STRUCTURE OF METAPHORS METAPHOR CAN BE SIMPLE AND SUSTAINED/PROLONGED. SIMPLE METAPHORS ARE METAPHORS IN WHICH ONLY ONE STATEMENT IS METAPHORICAL. IT MAY CONTAIN A WORD OR A PHRASE AND IS CONNECTED WITH ONE IMAGE. E. G. “ A GOOD BOOK IS THE BEST OF FRIENDS THE SAME TODAY AND FOR EVER’. ( TAPPER) A SUSTAINED / PROLONGED METAPHOR IS NOT CONFINED TO ONE IMAGE; A NUMBER OF METAPHORS ARE CONNECTED IN IT IN A COMPLEX IMAGE. ALL THE ELEMENTS OF A SUSTAINED METAPHOR ARE ASSOCIATED WITH THE MAIN IMAGE. E. G. “ IN NOVEMBER A COLD, UNSEEN STRANGER, WHOM THE DOCTORS CALLED PNEUMONIA, STALKED ABOUT THE COLONY, TOUCHING ONE HERE AND THERE WITH ICY FINGERS. ” THE STYLISTIC FUNCTION OF METAPHOR IS TWOFOLD: IT MAKES THE AUTHOR’S THOUGHT MORE CONCRETE, DEFINITE AND CLEAR

PERSONIFICATION IS ANOTHER VARIETY OF METAPHOR. PERSONIFICATION IS THE PRESENTATION OF INANIMATE OBJECTS, PHENOMENA OR IDEAS AS IF THEY WERE HUMAN BEINGS , AND ASCRIBING TO THEM SUCH ATTRIBUTES AS THOUGHT , SPEECH, FEELING AND ACTION. THE FUNCTION OF PERSONIFICATION IS TO ATTRIBUTE TO THINGS OR IDEAS A LOFTY CHARACTER , MAKE THEM MORE EMPHATIC. THE PURPOSE OF PERSONIFICATION IS TO HELP TO VISUALIZE THE DESCRIPTION, TO IMPART DYNAMIC FORCE TO IT OR REPRODUCE THE PARTICULAR MOOD OF THE VIEWER. E. G. “ BESIDES, THE KETTLE WAS AGGRAVATING AND OBSTINATE. IT WOULDN’T ALLOW ITSELF TO BE ADJUSTED TO THE TOP BAR; IT WOULDN’T HEAR OF ACCOMMODATING ITSELF TO THE KNOBS OF THE COAL; IT WOULD LEAN FORWARD WITH AN DRUNKEN AIR AND DRIBBLE; A VERY IDIOT OF A KETTLE. ”( CH. DICKENS).

FORMAL SIGNS/ SIGNALS OF PERSONIFICATION. 1. THE USE OF THE PRONOUNS HE AND SHE WITH THE REFERENCE TO LIFELESS THINGS IS OFTEN MORE OR LESS SURE SIGN OF THIS STYLISTIC DEVICE. E. G. “ THEN NIGHT , LIKE SOME GREAT LOVING MOTHER GENTLY LAYS HER HAND ON OUR FEVERED HEAD, AND TURNS OUR LITTLE TEAR-STAINED FACE UP TO HERS, AND SMILES, AND, THOUGH SHE DOES NOT SPEAK , WE KNOW WHAT SHE WOULD SAY AND LAY OUR HOT , FLUSHED CHEEK AGAINST HER AND THE PAIN IS GONE. ” (JEROME K. JEROME) 2. PERSONIFICATION IS OFTEN EFFECTED BY DIRECT ADDRESS. “ O STRETCH THY REIGN, FAIR PEACE! TILL CONQUEST CEASE, AND SLAVERY BE NO MORE. ”(POPE). 3. ANOTHER FORMAL SIGN OF PERSONIFICATION IS CAPITALIZATION OF THE WORD WHICH EXPRESSES A PERSONIFIED NOTION.

“NO SLEEP TILL MORN, WHEN YOUTH AND PLEASURE MEET TO CHASE THE GLOWING HOURS WITH FLYING FEET. ”(BYRON). SOMETIMES , HOWEVER, THE CAPITAL LETTER HAS NOTHING IN COMMON WITH PERSONIFICATION, MERELY PERFORMING AN EMPHASIZING FUNCTION. “ IT (THE WIND) SEEMS TO CHANT IN ITS WILD WAY, OF WRONG AND MURDER DONE, AND FALSE GODS WORSHIPPED, IN DEFIANCE OF THE TABLES OF THE LAW. . ”(DICKENS).

ALLEGORY MEANS EXPRESSING ABSTRACT IDEAS THROUGH CONCRETE PICTURES. . AS FOR SHORTER ALLEGORICAL TEXTS , THEY ARE PRESENTED BY PROVERBS. IN A PROVERB, WE FIND A PRECEPT IN VISUAL FORM; THE LOGICAL CONTENT OF THE PRECEPT IS INVIGORATED BY EMOTIVE FORCE OF THE IMAGE. THUS, THE PROVERB” MAKE HAY WHILE THE SUN SHINES” IMPLIES A PIECE OF ADVICE HAVING NOTHING IN COMMON WITH HAYMAKING OR SUNSHINE: “ MAKE USE OF A FAVOURABLE SITUATION, DO NOT MISS AN OPPORTUNITY ; DO NOT WASTE TIME. ”

OTHER EXAMPLES OF ALLERORY “ ALL IS NOT GOLD THAT GLITTERS. ” “ BEAUTY LIES IN THE LOVER’S EYES. ” “ EVERY CLOUD HAS A SILVER LINING. ” “ NO ROSE WITHOUT A THORN. ”

METONYMY (RENAMING, CHANGING OF NAME) IS A DIFFERENT TYPE OF INTERACTION BETWEEN LOGICAL AND CONTEXTUAL LOGICAL MEANING. IT IS BASED ON THE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN TWO CONCEPTS: BETWEEN THE OBJECT IMPLIED AND THE OBJECT NAMED. THEIR CONNECTIONS TAKE THE FOLLOWING FORMS:

1. THE RESULT FOR THE CAUSE: E. G. THE FISH DESPERATELY TAKES THE DEATH. (THE HOOK). GREY HAIR IS NOT ALWAYS RESPECTED(OLD AGE) 2. THE CAUSE FOR THE RESULT : E. G. THIS AUTHOR LIVES BY HIS OWN PEN ( HIS WRITINGS ARE THE SOURCE OF HIS EARNINGS); 3. THE SYMBOL FOR THE THING SIGNIFIED: E. G. THE CROWN HAD TO YIELD TO THE DEMAND OF THE PEOPLE (THE KING); 4. THE CHARACTERISTIC FEATURE FOR ITS BEARER: E. G. THROUGH THE SILENT SUNLIT SOLITUDE OF THE SQUARE … THIS BONNET AND THIS DRESS FLOATED NORTHWORDS (A. BENNET).

5. THE CONTAINER FOR THE THING CONTAINED, OR CONTRARY: E. G THE WOOD SINGS. (THE BIRDS IN THE WOOD); 6. AN ABSTRACT NOUN FOR A CONCRETE , OR CONTRARY. E. G. LABOUR DEMONSTRATED IN THE STREET; 7. MATERIAL FOR THE THING MADE OF IT. E. G. A SHOWER OF STEEL FELL ON THE TRENCHES; 8. THE NAME OF THE CREATOR FOR HIS CREATION: E. G. HE CAME INTO POSSESSION OF THE WHOLE SHAKESPEARE(J. LONDON).

METONYMY IS EXPRESSED BY NOUNS, LESS FREQUENTLY BY SUBSTANTIVIZED NUMERALS AND IS USED IN SYNTACTICAL FUNCTIONS CHARACTERISTIC OF NOUNS: SUBJECT, OBJECT, PREDICATIVE. THERE IS THE DIFFERENCE IN TRANSFERENCE OF MEANING BETWEEN METAPHOR AND METONYMY. IN METAPHOR THERE IS A COMMON COMPONENT IN THE SEMANTIC STRUCTURE , IN METONYMY THE OBJECTS HAVE COMMON GROUND OF EXISTENCE IN REALITY. SUCH WORDS AS CUP AND TEA HAVE NO LINGUISTIC IDENTITY, BUT THE FIRST ONE MAY SERVE THE CONTAINER FOR THE SECOND, HENCE - THE CONVERSATIONAL CLICHÉ: E. G. WILL YOU HAVE ANOTHER CUP? WHICH IS A CASE OF METONYMY ONCE ORIGINAL, BUT DUE TO LONG USE, NO MORE ACCEPTED AS A FRESH STYLISTIC DEVICE.

OTHER EXAMPLES OF METONYMY: MY BRASS WILL CALL YOUR BRASS. (A. HAILEY). BLUE SUIT GRINNED, MIGHT EVEN WINKED. BUT BIG NOSE IN THE GREY SUIT STILL STARED. (PRIESTLY) SHE LIVES AT AN EXPENSIVE ADDRESS. (A. CHRISTIE). METONYMY MAY BE OF TWO TYPES: TRADITIONAL OR TRITE OR CONTEXTUAL. TRADITIONAL/ TRITE METONYMY HAS THE LABEL/MARK IN THE DICTIONARY - “FIG” / FIGURATIVE. E. G. THE- PRESS FOR THE PERSONNEL CONNECTED WITH PRINTING OR PUBLISHING. BENCH - IS A GENERIC TERM FOR MAGISTRATES AND JUSTICES. METONYMY USED IN SPEECH OR TEXTS IS CALLED CONTEXTUAL METONYMY. E. G. MISS TOX’S HAND TREMBLED AS SHE SLIPPED IT THROUGH MR. DOMBEY’S ARM, AND FELT HERSELF ESCORTED UP THE STEPS, PROCEEDED BY A COCKED HAT AND A BABYLONIAN COLLAR. COCKED HAT AND BABYLONIAN COLLAR STAND FOR THE WEARER OF THE ARTICLES IN QUESTION. SOMETIMES THE METONYMIC ESSENCE OF A SENTENCE IS DISCERNABLE ONLY THROUGH THE MACRO-CONTEXT. E. G. THE WALK TO THE HOTEL SEEMED ENDLESS. (CHANDLER).

SYNACDOCHE A PARTICULAR CASE OF METONYMY IS SYNECDOCHE, WHEN PART IS USED FOR THE WHOLE, OR THE SINGULAR FOR THE PLURAL. A TYPICAL EXAMPLE OF TRADITIONAL SYNECDOCHE IS THE WORD HANDS USED INSTEAD OF THE WORD WORKERS. E. G. HANDS WANTED OR SAILORS. ALL HANDS ON DECK. E. G. A HUNDRED HEAD OF CATTLE. IN THIS EXAMPLE A PART STANDS FOR THE WHOLE. THE SAME IN THE USE OF THE SINGULAR WHEN THE PLURAL IS MEANT FOR THE WHOLE CLASS. E. G. A STUDENT IS EXPECTED TO KNOW… THE OPPOSITE TYPE OF SYNECDOCHE ( THE WHOLE FOR A PART) OCCURS WHEN THE NAME OF THE GENUS IS USED IN PLACE OF THE NAME OF SPECIES, AS STOP TORTURING THE POOR ANIMAL ( INSTEAD OF THE POOR DOG). OR WHEN THE “PLURAL OF DISAPPROBATION” IS RESORTED TO: READING BOOKS WHEN I AM TALKING TO YOU!

IRONY (HIDDEN MOCKERY) IS A STYLISTIC DEVICE BASED ON THE INTERACTION OF TWO LOGICAL MEANINGS - DICTIONARY AND CONTEXTUAL WHEN THEY STAND IN OPPOSITION TO EACH OTHER. THE STYLISTIC FUNCTION OF IRONY IS RIDICULE, CRITICISM. E. G. “IT WAS A REGULAR PLACE OF PUBLIC ENTERTAINMENT FOR THE POOR CLASSES; A TAVERN WHERE THERE WAS NOTHING TO PAY; A PUBLIC BREAKFAST, DINNER, TEA AND SUPPER ALL THE YEAR ROUND, A BRICK AND MORTAR ELYSIUM, WHERE IT WAS ALL PAY AND NO WORK. … WHAT A NOBLE ILLUSTRATION OF THE TENDER LAWS OF THIS FAVOURED COUNTRY - THEY LET THE PAUPERS GO TO SLEEP!” (CH. DICKENS, “OLIVER TWIST”)

IRONY DOES NOT EXIST OUTSIDE THE CONTEXT WHICH VARIES FROM THE MINUMAL - A WORD COMBINATION ; TO THE MAXIMUM - THE CONTEXT OF THE WHOLE BOOK. E. G. OF IRONY FUNCTIONING IN MINI-CONTEXT: “SHE TURNED WITH THE SWEET SMILE OF AN ALLIGATOR”. (J. STEINBECK) E. G. OF IRONY FUNCTIONING IN MACRO-CONTEXT - THE TEXT OF THE WHOLE BOOK. “… MR. MICAWBER SAID IN HIS USUAL PLAIN MANNER. ” IRONY MAY BE OF TWO TYPES: VERBAL AND SUSTAINED OR CONTEXTUAL. VERBAL IRONY IS EXPRESSED IN WORDS WHOSE CONTEXTUAL MEANING DIAMETRICALLY OPPOSES THEIR DICTIONARY MEANING. E. G. “ LAST TIME IT WAS A NICE, SIMPLE, EUROPEAN-STYLE WAR”. SUSTAINED / CONTEXTUAL IRONY IS CREATED BY A NUMBER OF STATEMENTS IN THE TEXT, AS WELL AS THE WHOLE TEXT. E. G. “ AND IT WAS NOURISHING, TOO AS GEORGE SAID, THERE WAS GOOD STUFF IN IT. THE PEAS AND POTATOES MIGHT HAVE BEEN A BIT SOFTER, SO THAT DID NOT MATTER MUCH; AND AS FAR THE GRAVY, IT WAS A POEM - A LITTLE TOO RICH, PERHAPS, FOR A WEAK STOMACH- BUT NUTRITIOUS. ”(JEROME K. JEROME)

SOMETIMES IRONY IS CONFUSRD WITH HUMOUR. HUMOUR AWAKENS LAUGHTER, WHILE IRONY CALLS FORTH ANGER, DISLIKE, IRRITATION. HUMOUR IS ALWAYS DIRECT, WHILE IRONY IS VEILED, HIDDEN. E. G. (HUMOUR) “IF THERE’S A WAR, WHAT ARE YOU GOING TO BE IN? LIPHOOK ASKED. THE GOVERNMENT, I HOPE, TOM SAID. “TOURING THE LINES IN AN ARMORED CAR, MY GREAT BELLY SHAKING LIKE A JELLY. HEY! DID YOU HEAR THAT? THAT”S POETRY. ” (J. BRAINE). (IRONY, SARCASM) “ BUT EVERY ENGLISHMAN IS BORN WITH A CERTAIN MIRACULOUS POWER THAT MAKES HIM MASTER OF THE WORLD…. AS THE GREAT CHAMPION OF FREEDOM AND NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE HE CONQUERS AND ANNEXES HALF THE WORLD AND CALLS IT COLONIZATION. ”