Lecture 4 -5. The Morphological Structure of

Lecture 4 -5. The Morphological Structure of English Words and Word-building in English Morphemes: the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms. Roots Affixes: prefixes suffixes infixes (Ex. : stand)

The Properties of Morphemes Smallest unit associated with a meaning car , car e, car pet, car go √ car, √care, √carpet, √cargo

Affixational morphemes: derivational (carry the lexico-grammatical meaning and serve to form new words) functional ( having grammatical meaning) — inflexions Stem = root + derivational morphemes

Affixes: distinction from roots They do not form words by themselves Their meaning is not as clear and specific as it the meaning of roots The number of affixes is much restricted than that of roots

Roots Bound root morphemes Free root morphemes Transition from bound roots to free roots Graph(1878), phone(1866)

Roots Free roots: free morphemes Bound roots: derived from foreign source Vit (Latin: “life”): viv (to live): revive vitamin vital vivid

free bound Affixes are bound morphemes It is quite normal for free morphemes to become bound e. g. less (adj. ): devoid of, lacking dom : doom, judgement hood: condition or state Semi-affixes stand between roots and derivational morphemes: fire proof , water proof , kiss proof , lady like , business like , star like , etc. ; -worthy, -man, -ful, etc. )

Learn some roots from Latin acu- (acr-) —-sharp Acute ag- (act-) —to do, to drive Agent anim—-life or mind animal annu- (ennu-) —year annual Aud- (audit) —to hear audience

More roots from Latin anim—-life or mind animal annu- (ennu-) —year annual Aud- (audit) —to hear audience

Allomorph Different phonemic representations of one morpheme cap s , class es : √-s (plural) -ion, -tion, -ation, -sion positional allomorphs of the same suffix

Morpheme meaning “take” √ cap -: cap able, cap tive √ cep : ac cep t, de cep tion √ cip : anti cip ate, parti cip ate, prin cip al

Monomorphic and polymorphic composition of words Monomorphic words (simple) consist of one morpheme – the root morpheme only. dog, cat, boy, girl , etc. Polymorphic words consist of a root and one or several affixes or of two or several root morphemes. 1) derived words, which contain a root and one or several affixes: hardship , unbelievable. 2) compound words, which consist of at least two root morphemes: handbag , merry-go-round. 3) compound derivatives, or derivational compounds, which are constituted by two or more roots modified by an affix: old-maidish , long-nosed. Simplification of the stem (опрощение морфологической структуры слова ) woman – OE wif+man, window – OE wind+eage

Levels of analysis of the morphological structure 1. Morphemic analysis states the number of morphemes in a word and their types. Friendliness — three morphemes: one root morpheme (friend) and two derivational morphemes ( ly , ness ). 2. Derivational analysis reveals the pattern according to which the word is built. Friendliness: built by adding to the stem friendly the suffix ness (not friend + liness as there is no suffix liness in English). Derivational analysis shows the structural correlation of the word with other words: friendly vs friendliness = happy vs happiness = easy vs easiness , etc. 3. Analysis into Immediate Constituents ( непосредственные составляющие ) reveals the history of the word, the stages of the process of its formation. The analysis is binary: at each stage we split the word into two constituents. friendliness = friendly + ness friendly = friend + ly. Ultimate Constituents ( конечные составляющие ) look this way: friend+ly+ness.

Derivation of uninhabitableness The stem is habit N ADJ ness un ADJ V able in habit

Productivity The most productive ways of word-building in Modern English are: affixation conversion composition shortening back-formation blending The types of word-building that are less productive are sound imitation and reduplication. The ways of word-formation that are non-productive are sound and stress interchange.

Affixation is building new words by adding affixes to the stem of the word (prefixation and suffixation).

Affixes can be classified according to (I): ability to convert the word into another part of speech ( convertive and non-convertive) to the part of speech formed (noun-forming, verb-forming, adverb-forming origin: native -er, -ed, -dom, -en, -ful, -less, -hood, -let, -ly, -ness, -ship, -some, -teen, -th, -y, ward, -wise, -lock; un-, mis-, up-, under-, over-, out- Borrowed: Latin ( -or, -ant, -able ), French ( -ard, -ance, -ate ), or Greek ( -ist, -ism, -oid ). There exist numerous prefixes of Latin and Greek origin used to form new words in English: anti-, contra-, sub-, super-, post-, vice- , etc

Affixes can be classified according to (II): lexico-grammatical meaning productivity (the ability to form new words) connotational characteristics : emotionally coloured ( stink ard , drunk ard , gang ster , young ster , etc. – derogatory emotional charge) and neutral (-er, able, -ing); stylistically marked ( ultra-, -oid, -eme, -tron , etc. – bookish) and neutral (-er, able, -ing).

Prefixes 1) Negative prefixes a-/a n- amoral, asexual, atheism, anacid, anarchy, dis- dishonest, discontent, discover, disobey, disagree in- Incomplete, inconsistent, incorrect, invulnerable, illogical, illegal, impolite, immoral, imbalance, irrational, irregular non — nonviolent, non-cooperation, nonautomatic, nonadjustable, nonalcoholic un- uninformative, unexpected, unease, unrest

Prefixation Order Literate Symmetry Governmental Relevant Productive Believable Vulnerable Sane Related Aligned Mature Disorder Illiterate Asymmetry Nongovernmental Irrelevant Unproductive Unbelievable Invulnerable Insane Unrelated Nonaligned Immature

Prefixation 2) Reversative or privative de- defrost, deregulation, degeneration, deformed, denationalize un- undo, unpack, untie, unwrap, unmask dis — disconnect, dishearten, disinterested

Prefixation Centralize Plane Infect Zip Regulate Possess Pollute Decentralize Deplane Disinfect Unzip Deregulate Dispossess Depollute

Prefixation 3) Pejorative prefixes mis- misguide, misapplication, misbehavior, mischoice, misgiving mal- maladjustment, maldigestion, malfunction, maldevelopment pseu do- pseudonym, pseudoscience, pseudoclassic, pseudo-friend

Prefixation 4) Prefixes of degree or size hyp er- hyperactive, hypercritical, hyperaggressive, hypercautious ultr a- ultramodern, ultrasecret, ultraclean, ultrasonic, ultraconservative mini — minibus, minicamera, miniskirt out- outdo, outgrown, outlive over — overwork, overestimate, overemphasize, overabundance, overburden und er- underdeveloped, underpopulation, undergraduate sup er- supermarket, superpower, superstar sub- subadult, subtitle, subbreed, subatom

Prefixation Computer Critical Conscious Natural Sensitive Simple Number Statement culture Minicomputer Ultracritic /hypercritic Subconscious Supernatural Hypersensitive/ultrasensitive Oversimple Outnumber Understatement Subculture

Prefixation 5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude co- Co-author, co-star, co-prosperity, cooperation count er- Counterexample, counterclaim, counteractive, counterattack, counterculture, countermeasure anti-abortion, anti-art, antiwar, antibacterial, antisocial, anticancer, antibody pro-American, pro-revolutionary, pro-Fascism , pro-student, proslavery

Prefixation 6) Locative prefixes for e- forearm, foreleg, forename, foreword inte r- international, intergovernmental, intertwine, interdisciplinary, intercollege tra ns- transatlantic, transoceanic, transform, transplant tele — telephone, telegram, telecommunication

Prefixation View Conference Continental Ground Cast Specific Racial Shore Interview teleconference Intercontinental Foreground Telecast Transpacific Transracial Foreshore

Prefixation 7) Prefixes of time and order ex-husband, ex-president, ex-colony, ex-convict for e- foresee, foretell, forefather, forewarn pre — premature, prewar, prehistoric, prepay, premarital pos t- post-election, postwar, postgraduate, postdoctoral

Prefixation 8) Number prefixes uni-/mono — unilateral, unicell, unicircuit, unicolor, unicycle, unidimensional, uniform, unipolar, monoxide, monocrystal, monogamy, monologue bi-/di- bicycle, bilingual, bimonthly, dioxide, dialogue, dichotomy, disyllable tri- triangular, triatomic, trimonthly, trilateral, trilingual multi-/pol y- multipurpose, multipolar, multiangular, multilingual, polyatomic, polycrystal, polygamy semi- semicircle, semiliterate, semivowel, semiannual, semicolony, semiautomatic

Prefixation Lingual Lateral Polar Dimensional Unilingual, bilingual, trilingual, multilingual Unilateral, bilateral, trilateral, multilateral Unipolar, bipolar, tripolar, multipolar Unidimensional, bidimensional, tridimensional (three-dimensional), multidimensional

Prefixation 9) Conversion prefixes a- aloud, asleep, aglow, awash be — belittle, bestir, befriend, bewitch en — endanger, enforce, enable, embody, embitter, empower

Prefixation 10) Miscellaneous prefixes Extr a- Extralinguistic, extraordinary, extraterrestrial Neo — Neo-classicism, neo-colonialism, neo-fascism, Neolithic Pan — Pan-Pacific, Pan-Arabism, Pan-Africanism …… ………. .

Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. Unlike prefixes which primarily change the meaning of the stem, suffixes have only a small semantic role , their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems. In other words, they mainly change the word class. However, they may also add attached meaning to the stem.

Suffixation The classification of suffixes Since suffixes mainly change the word class, we shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into 1) noun suffixes 2) adjective suffixes 3) adverb suffixes 4) verb suffixes

Suffixation 1) Noun suffixes may be subdivided into the following kinds. Denominal nouns (concrete or abstract) Deverbal nouns De-adjectival nouns Noun and adjective suffixes

Suffixation 1) Noun suffixes Denominal nouns (concrete) -e er auctioneer, engineer, mountaineer, pamphleteer, profiteer, racketeer -er Londoner, teenager, villager -e ss actress, waitress, stewardess, hostess, lioness -le t booklet, leaflet, piglet, starlet

Suffixation 1) Noun suffixes Denominal nouns (abstract) — age baggage, luggage, mileage, percentage — dom freedom, kingdom, stardom, officialdom — ery/- ry drudgery, slavery, nunnery, nursery, machinery -ism idealism, optimism, individualism, consumerism -ship dictatorship, scholarship, friendship, sportsmanship -ocra sy aristocracy, democracy, meritocracy -hoo d boyhood, brotherhood, neighborhood, adulthood — ful handful, mouthful, plateful, tubful

Suffixation 1) Noun suffixes Deverbal nouns — ant contestant, inhabitant, assistant, informant — ee interviewee, addressee, appointee, nominee, employee — er/-o r driver, employer, interviewer, computer, silencer, accelerator, supervisor, actor, window-shopper -atio n foundation, exploration, nomination, starvation -ing building, dwelling, earnings, savings, clothing, stuffing -al refusal, revival, survival, arrival, dismissal -men t amazement, arrangement, movement, government — age breakage, coverage, shrinkage, drainage

Suffixation 1) Noun suffixes De-adjectival nouns — ity diversity, equality, rapidity, verbosity, responsibility, actuality, regularity, popularity, respectability — nes s accurateness, falseness, kindness, selfishness, happiness, largeness, frankness, unexpectedness, thickness, goodness

Suffixation 1) Noun suffixes Nouns and adjective suffixes — ese Burmese, Chinese, Cantonese, officialese, journalese -( i)a n Darwinian, republican, Elizabethan, Shakespearean, Indonesian, Russian — ist communist, pianist, specialist, socialist

Suffixation 2) Adjective Suffixes Denominal suffixes — ed dogged, rugged, pointed, chocolate-flavored — ful delightful, successful, faithful, meaningful — ish childish, foolish, snobbish, Irish, Turkish — less homeless, hopeless, merciless, harmless — like childlike, ladylike, statesmanlike — ly friendly, cowardly, motherly, daily, weekly — y milky, sandy, hairy, meaty

Suffixation 2) Adjective Suffixes Denominal suffixes -ic (-atic) ethnic, economic, historic, problematic -ous (-ious, -eous) ambitious, desirous, marvelous, courageous, erroneous, courteous — al (-ial, -ical) accidental, professional, residential, musical, philosophical

Suffixation 2) Adjective Suffixes Deverbal suffixes — able (-ible, -uble) debatable, drinkable, changeable, perishable, permissible, visible, dissoluble, soluble — ive (-ative, -sive) attractive, reflective, productive, negative, decorative, talkative, affirmative, expansive, explosive, decisive

Suffixation 3) Adverb Suffixes — ly smoothly, personally, extremely, publicly, naturally — ward (s) downward, eastward, homeward, forward — wise clockwise, lengthwise, weatherwise, educationwise, taxwise, moneywise

Suffixation 4) Verb suffixes -ate Originate, hyphenate — en Deepen, harden, strengthen, hasten — ify Solidify, modify, beautify, classify, identify — ize(-i se) Symbolize, computerize, legalize, publicize, specialize

Suffixation False Sterile Intense Fat Horror Memory Apology Falsify Sterilize Intensify Fatten Horrify Memorize Apologize

Conversion (zero derivation) is making a new word by changing the part of speech characteristics of the word without changing its morphemic shape. appeared in the 13 th century when the loss of inflexions made nouns and verbs look similar in form. The most productive pattern of conversion ( конверсионная модель ) is N→V: honeymoon→to honeymoon. Less productive is the pattern Adj→N: slow→to slow (us. to slow down – сбавлять скорость ). The pattern V→N is much less frequent than the pattern N→V: to fall – a fall.

Conversion Noun-verb conversion He elbowed his way through the crowd. Problems snowballed by the hour. The newspaper headlined his long record of accomplishments. Kissinger got the plans and helicoptered to Camp David.

Conversion Abuse Advice House Use Belief Grief Shelf mouth Abuse Advise House Use Believe Grieve Shelve Mouth Changes of pronunciation and spelling

Conversion Verb-noun conversion He was admitted to the university after a three-year wait. This little restaurant is quite a find. It is a good buy. He took a close look at the machine. doubt, smell, desire, want, attempt, hit, reply, divide

Conversion Verb-noun conversion Phrasal verb-noun conversion Right branching Left branching Break down Break out Outbreak Pick up Pick-up Spill over Overspill Take over Take-over Start up Upstart Get together Get-together Put in Input Break through Breakthrough Keep up upkeep

Conversion Conflict Abstract Contrast Decrease Discount Export Rebel Permit Progress Protest Transfer Transplant Survey Torment. Shift of stress

Conversion Adjective-noun conversion Partial conversion Complete conversion

Conversion Adjective-noun conversion Partial conversion Denoting a quality or a state common to a group of person: the deaf, the blind, the poor, the wounded Denoting peoples of a nation (ending in –sh, -se, -ch): the English, the Chinese, the Danish, the Scotch Denoting a quality in the abstract: a strong dislike for the sentimental, to distinguish the false and the true, from the sublime to the ridiculous Denoting a single person (converted from participles): the accused, the deceased, the deserted, the condemned

Conversion Adjective-noun conversion Complete conversion A native , two natives, a returned native He is a natural for the job. Tom is one of our regulars , he comes in for a drink about this time every night. To them she is not a brusque crazy , but appropriately passionate. They are the creatives in the advertising department.

Compounding The definition of compounding Composition or compounding is a word-formation process consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compound word. It is a common device which has been productive at every period of the English language. Today the largest number of new words are formed by compounding.

Compounding Forms of compounds Solid: bedtime, honeymoon Hyphenated: above-mentioned, town-planning Open: reading material, hot line

Compounding Types of compounds Noun compounds Adjective compounds Verb compounds

Compounding Noun compounds Headache, housekeeping, hot line, swimming pool, raindrop, breakdown, biological clock, identity crisis

Compounding Adjective compounds Weather-beaten rocks, peaceloving people, everlasting friendship, a difficult-to-operate machine, a made-up story, an on the spot inspection, taxfree products, fire-proof dress

Compounding Verb compounds Formed by back-formation (обратное словообразование) house-keep from housekeeper windowshop from window-shopping mass produce from mass production hen-peck from hen-pecked spoon-feed from spoon-fed.

Compounding Verb compounds Formed by conversion to blue-print, to cold-shoulder, to outline, to honeymoon, to snowball, to chain-smoke, to sweet-talk, to job-hop.

Shortening (Clipping or Curtailment) Types of shortening or abbreviation 1) clipped words : those created by clipping part of the word (usually a noun), leaving only a piece of the old word. The clipped form is normally regarded as informal.

Shortening Types of shortening or abbreviation 2) initialisms ( инициальная аббревиатура ) : a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase; an initialism is pronounced letter by letter.

Shortening Types of shortening or abbreviation 3) acronyms : words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as words. Acronyms differ from initialisms in that they are pronounced as words rather than as sequences of letters.

Shortening 1) Clipped words ad=advertisement expo=exposition phone=telephone pro=professional memo=memorandum tec=detective heli or copter=helicopter comfy=comfortable

Shortening gymnasium dormitory handkerchief gasoline kilogram influenza business parachute refrigerator taxicab gym dorm hanky Gas kilo flu biz chute fridge taxi or cab. Give clippings for the following words

Shortening 2) Initialisms IOC=International Olympic Committee BBC=British Broadcasting Corporation ISBN=International Standard Book Number CAD=computer assisted design cm=centimeter TB=tuberculosis

Shortening CPU DIY CEO IT AI SOS IDD GMT VIP P. S. a. m. p. m. central processing unit Do it yourself Chief Executive Officer Information technology artificial intelligence Save our ship international direct dial Greenwich Mean Time very important person postscript ante meridiem post meridiem. Write out in full the following initialisms

Shortening 3) Acronyms Basic=Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction TEFL=teaching English as a foreign language UNESCO=the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Sars=Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome

Shortening TOEFL ROM NATO FIFA Aids radar Test of English as a foreign language read only memory The North Atlantic Treaty organization Federation Internationale de Football Acquired Immune Deficiency syndrome Radio detecting and ranging Write out in full the following acronyms

Blending Контаминация The definition of blending Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining parts of two words. The result of such a process is called a blend or telescopic word or portmanteau word. Blending is thus a process of both compounding and abbreviation.

Blending Examples newscast (news ＋ broadcast) brunch (breakfast ＋ lunch) smog (smoke ＋ fog) talkathon (talk ＋ marathon) slimnastics (slim ＋ gymnastics) videophone ( video ＋ telephone)

Blending sci-fi hi-fi workaholic stagflation Unicom sitcom motel dawk science ＋ fiction high ＋ fidelity work ＋ alcoholic stagnation ＋ inflation United ＋ Communications situation ＋ comedy motor ＋ hotel dove ＋ hawk

Backformation (Обратное словообразование) The definition of backformation Back-formation is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion of a supposed suffix. It is also known as a reverse derivation.

Backformation Examples edit from editor automate from automation enthuse from enthusiasm gloom from gloomy donate from donation brainwash from brainwashing sleep-walk from sleep-walking

Sound imitation (Onomatopoeia) is a way of word-formation which consists in imitating the sounds made by animals, birds, insects, men and different objects: bang, giggle, quack. Some scholars suggest that sounds have a certain meaning of their own

Reduplication (Repetition) consists in a complete or partial repetition of the stem or of the whole word (bye-bye), often with a variation of the root vowel or consonant (ping-pong ) These words are always colloquial or slang, among them there many nursery words. 1) the words in which the same stem is repeated without any changes (pretty-pretty, goody-goody, never-never ( утопия ); 2) words with a vowel variation (chit-chat ( сплетни ), ping-pong, tip-top); 3) words with pseudomorphemes (rhyme combinations) (lovey-dovey, walkie-talkie, willy-nilly); the parts of such words don’t exist as separate words.

Ellipsis is the omission of a word or words considered essential for grammatical completeness but not for the conveyance of the intended lexical meaning: pub←public house , daily←daily newspaper, sale←cutprice sale, taxi←taximotor cab (ellipsis+apocopy in the last word).

Non-productive ways of word-building Sound interchange : vowel-interchange ( to sing – song, to live – live ) and consonant-interchange ( use – to use [z], advice – to advise ). Consonant interchange may be combined with vowel interchange: bath – to bathe. Distinctive stress is found in groups like `present – pres`ent, `conduct – con`duct, `abstract – abstr’act, etc. These words were French borrowings with the original stress on the last syllable.